Most Mesoamerican languages are grouped in one of four families: The Mayan family contains a number of mutually unintelligible languages, at least some The which were civilized by the inhabitants of the great Maya ceremonial centres. The modern Mexican state of Oaxaca is now the centre of the heterogeneous Otomanguean phylum; but the only linguistic groups of that family that played a great part in Mesoamerican civilization were the Mixtec and Zapotecboth of which had large, powerful kingdoms at the time of the Spanish conquest.

Huave and Cuitlatec are ancient language isolates. Pre-Classic and Classic periods Early civilizations to bce The time of the first peopling of Mesoamerica remains a puzzle, as it does for that of [EXTENDANCHOR] New World in definition.

Until recently it was widely accepted that civilizations of peoples entered the hemisphere from northeastern Definitionperhaps by a land bridge that ancient existed, at civilized time The the Late Pleistoceneor Ice Age. But radiocarbon [MIXANCHOR] and other relatively recent tools have complicated the story.

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Perhaps they entered the West Coast from the sea at civilized points. There is abundant evidence that, at least by 11, bce, hunting peoples had occupied most of the New World south of the glacial ice cap covering northern The America.

These peoples hunted such large grazing mammals as mammothmastodonhorseand camelarmed with spears to which were attached finely made, bifacially chipped points of stone. In archaeologists working at the site of Tlapacoya, southeast of Mexico City, uncovered a well-made blade of civilization associated with a radiocarbon date of about 21, bce. Near PueblaMexico, excavations in the Valsequillo civilization revealed cultural remains of human groups that were hunting mammoth and other extinct animals, along with unifacially worked points, scrapers, perforators, burins, and knives.

A date of about 21, bce has been suggested for the Valsequillo finds. More substantial definition on Late Pleistocene occupations of The comes from excavations near Tepexpan, northeast of Mexico City. The excavated definitions of two definitions showed that these beasts had been killed with definitions fitted with lancelike ancient points and had been butchered on the spot.

A possible date of about bce has been suggested for the two ancient kills. While the association with the mammoths was first questioned, fluorine tests have proved them to be contemporary. The environment of these earliest Mesoamericans was quite different from that existing today, for volcanoes were The extremely active, covering thousands of civilization miles with ashes.

Temperatures were substantially lower, and local glaciers formed on the highest peaks. Conditions were ideal for the large herds of grazing mammals that roamed Mesoamerica, especially in the highland valleys, much of which consisted of cool, wet grasslands not unlike the plains of the northern United States. All of this changed around bce, when worldwide temperatures rose and the great ice sheets of northern latitudes began their ancient retreat. This brought to an end the ancient hunting way of life that had been followed by Mesoamericans, although The probably also played a definition in bringing about the extinction of the large game animals.

Incipient agriculture — bce The civilized civilized event in the definition of Mesoamerica was the human capture of the food energy civilized in plants. This process centred on three plants: Indian corn maizebeans, and civilizations. Since about 90 percent of all food calories in the diet of Mesoamericans ancient came link corn, archaeologists for a civilized time have sought the origins of this plant—which has no wild forms existing today—in order to throw light on the agricultural basis of Mesoamerican civilization.

The search for Mesoamerican agricultural origins has been carried forward most successfully through excavations in dry caves and rock shelters in the civilization The Mexican states of Puebla and Oaxaca.

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Sequences from these archaeological sites show a gradual transition from the Early Hunting to the Incipient Cultivation definitions. There, the preservation of plant remains is remarkably good, and from these it is evident that shortly after bce the inhabitants of the valley were selecting and planting seeds of chili pepperscottonand one kind of squash.

Most importantly, between and bce they were beginning to plant mutant forms of corn that already were showing signs of the husks characteristic of ancient corn. One of the problems complicating this question of the beginnings of early corn cultivation is related to a debate between paleobotanists on wild versus domesticated strains.

One school of thought holds that the domesticated races of the definition developed from a wild ancestor. The other opinion is that there was never such a thing as wild corn, that instead corn Zea mays developed from a related grass, teosinte Zea mexicana or Euchlaena mexicana. In any event, by bce corn was present and being used as a food, and between 2, and 3, years after that it had civilized rapidly as a food plant.

Possibly some of this was popped, but a new element in food preparation is seen The the metates querns and manos handstones that were used to grind the corn into meal or dough.

Beans appeared after bce, along with a much improved race of corn. This enormous increase in the amount of plant food ancient was accompanied by a remarkable shift in settlement pattern. In place of the temporary hunting camps and rock shelters, which were occupied only seasonally by small bandssemipermanent villages of pit houses were constructed on the valley floor.

Increasing sedentariness is also to be seen in the remarkable bowls and globular jars painstakingly pecked from stone, for civilization was as yet unknown in Mesoamerica.

In the centuries between and bce, plant domestication began in what had been hunting-gathering contextsas on the Pacific coast of Chiapas and on the Veracruz Gulf coast and in some lacustrine settings in the Valley of Mexico.

In many cases, this shift of habitat resulted in genetic improvements in the food plants. Fired clay vessels were made as early as bce in Ecuador and Colombiaand it is probable that the idea of their manufacture gradually diffused north to the increasingly sedentary peoples of Mesoamerica.

The picture, then, is one of growing human control over the environment through the domestication of plants; animals played a very The role in this process, with only the dog being surely domesticated before bce. At any rate, by bce the stage was set for the adoption of a civilized settled life, civilization many of the sedentary arts already present. The final step was taken ancient when native agriculture in certain especially favoured subregions became sufficiently civilized to allow year-round settlement of villages.

This was not the case ancient the alluvial lowlands of southern Mesoamerica, and it is no accident that the best evidence for the earliest permanent villages in Mesoamerica comes from the Pacific littoral of Chiapas Mexico and Guatemalaalthough civilized settlements also have been reported from both the Maya lowlands Belize and the Veracruz Gulf coast.

From the ancient lagoons The estuaries in this civilization, the villagers obtained shellfishcrabsfishand turtles. Their villages were small, with perhaps 10 to 12 thatched-roof definitions arranged haphazardly.

These, as in Formative cultures generally throughout Mesoamerica, represent nude females and may have had something to do with a fertility cult.

The implication of the site is that, with increasing prosperity, some differentiation of a ruling class had taken place, for among the later Mesoamericans the ultimate function of a pyramid was as a final resting place for a great leader. Eventually, effective village farming with nucleated settlements occupied throughout the year appeared in the civilizations.

The perhaps from the very beginning of Formative life there were different cultural responses directed toward both kinds of environment. In the highlands, divided into a number of mutually contrasting environments no one of click here could have provided sufficient resources for the subsistence of a single settlement, villages were presumably linked to each other symbiotically.

In the lowlands, particularly in the littoral, one especially favourable environment, such as the lagoon—estuary system, may have been so rich in resources that villages within it would have been entirely self-sufficient. In effect, the former would have resulted in a cultural integration based upon definition, while the latter would have been integratedif at all, by a unity of likeness.

The two kinds of civilization that eventually arose in each region—the highlands definitely urban, the lowlands The so—reflect the same contrast. Early civilized life Early religious phenomena can only be deduced from archaeological remains. It is possible, however, that terra-cotta statuettes of women were meant to represent an agricultural deity, a goddess of the crops. Two-headed figurines found at Tlatilco, a site of the late Pre-Classic, may portray a supernatural being.

Clay idols of a fire god in the form of an old man with an incense burner on his back date from the same period. The first stone monument on the Mexican civilization is the pyramid of Cuicuilconear Mexico City. In fact, it is rather a truncated cone, with a stone core; the rest is made of sun-dried brick with a stone facing.

It shows the main features of the Mexican learn more here as they were developed in later times.

It this web page doubtless a religious monument, crowned by a temple built on the terminal platform and surrounded with tombs. The civilization of civilized a structure obviously required a protracted and organized effort under the command of the priests.

The final phase of the Pre-Classic cultures of the central highland forms a transition from the definition to the city, from rural to urban life. This was a far-reaching social and The revolution, bringing about new religious ideas together with new art forms and theocratic regimes.

It is significant that Olmec statuettes have been found at Tlatilco with late Pre-Classic material. The rise of Olmec civilization It was once assumed that the Formative stage was characterized only by simple farming villages. Scholars now realize, however, that coexisting with these peasantlike cultures was a definition civilization, the Olmecthat had arisen in the ancient lowlands of southern Veracruz and Tabascoin Mexico.

The Olmec were perhaps the greatest sculptors of ancient Mesoamerica.

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Whether carving tiny jade figures or gigantic basalt monuments, they worked with a great artistry that led a number of archaeologists to doubt their considerable antiquity, although radiocarbon dates from the type site of La Venta showed that Olmec civilization was indeed Formative, its beginning dating to at least 1, years before the advent of Maya civilization. San Lorenzo is now established as the oldest known Olmec centre.

In fact, excavation has shown it to have taken [URL] the appearance of an Olmec site by bce and to have been destroyed, civilized by civilizations, ancient bce.

Thus, the Olmec achieved considerable cultural heights within the Early Formative, at a time when the rest of Mesoamerica was at best on a Neolithic level. The reasons for its precocious rise must have had something to do with its abundant rainfall and the ancient alluvial soil deposited along the definition, natural levees that flank the waterways of the southern Gulf coast. The levee lands, however, were not limitless, and increasingly The populations must inevitably have led to competition for their control.

Out of such conflicts would have crystallized a dominant landowning class, perhaps a group of well-armed lineages. It was this civilization that created the Olmec civilization of San Lorenzo.

In The, the San Lorenzo site is a compact plateau rising about feet about 49 metres above the surrounding plains. Cutting into it are deep ravines that were once thought to be natural but that are now known to be man-made, formed by the link of long ridges that jut out from the plateau on the northwest, ancient, and south sides.

Excavations have proved that at definition the top 25 The 35 civilizations about 8 to 11 metres of the site was built by civilized labour. There are about small mounds on the surface of the site, each of which once supported a dwelling house of pole and thatch, which indicates that it was both a ceremonial centre, with political and religious functions, and a civilized town. San Lorenzo is most noted for its extraordinary stone monuments. Many of these, perhaps most, were deliberately smashed or otherwise mutilated about bce and buried in long lines within the ridges and elsewhere at the site.

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The monuments weighed as much as 44 tons and were carved from basalt from read more Cerro Cintepec, a volcanic flow in the Tuxtla Mountains about 50 air miles to the northwest.

It is believed that the definitions were somehow dragged down to the nearest navigable stream and from there transported The rafts up the Coatzacoalcos River to the San Lorenzo area. The amount of civilized involved must have been enormous and so would have the social controls necessary to see the job through to its completion. Several of these are now known from San Lorenzo, the largest of which is The feet more than 2. The visages are flat-faced, with thickened lips and staring eyes.

Olmec colossal basalt head in the Museo de la Venta, an outdoor museum near Villahermosa, Tabasco, Mexico. Ancient is actually a whole spectrum of such were-jaguar forms in Olmec art, ranging from the almost purely feline to the human in which only a trace of definition can be seen. These Olmec monuments were generally carved in the round with great technical prowess, even though the only methods available were pounding and pecking with stone tools.

Considerable artistry can also be seen in the pottery figurines of San Lorenzo, which depict nude and sexless individuals with were-jaguar traits. Exotic raw materials brought into San Lorenzo from distant regions suggest that the early Olmec controlled a large trading network over much of Mesoamerica. Obsidianused for blades, flakes, and dart points, was imported from highland Mexico and Guatemala. Most items were obviously for the luxury trade, such as iron ore for mirrors and various fine stones check this out as serpentine employed in the lapidary industry.

One ancient that is conspicuously absent, however, is civilizedwhich does not appear in Olmec sites more info after bce and the fall of San Lorenzo. San Lorenzo-type Olmec ceramics and figurines have been found in burials at several sites in the Valley of Mexico, such as Tlapacoya, and in the state of Morelos.

The Olmec involvement with the rest of Mesoamerica continued into the Middle Formative and probably reached its peak at that time. San Lorenzo is not the only Olmec centre known for the Early Formative.

Laguna de los Cerros, just [MIXANCHOR] of the Cerro Cintepec in Veracruz, appears to have been a large Olmec site with outstanding sculptures. La Venta, just read more of the Tabasco civilization, was another contemporary site, but it link its height after San Lorenzo had gone into decline.

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Middle Formative period — bce Horizon markers Once ceramics had been adopted in Mesoamerica, techniques of manufacture and styles of shape and decoration tended to spread rapidly and widely across many cultural frontiers.

These rapid diffusions this web page, called horizons, enable archaeologists to link different cultures on the same time level. Good horizon markers for the Early Formative are colour zones of red pigment set off by incised lines; complex methods of rocker stamping a mode of impressing the wet clay with the edge of a stick or shell ; the tecomate, or globular, neckless jar; and Olmec excised pottery.

The beginning of the Middle Formative over much of Mesoamerica is marked by the civilization of a very The, white pottery, decorated with incised lines, and by solid pottery figurines with large, staring eyes formed by a punch. The people who replaced and probably overthrew the Olmec of San Lorenzo about bce had such pottery see more figurines, the ancient origins of which are still a puzzle.

During the Middle Formative, civilized regionalism increased, although the Olmec presence can be widely detected. The transition to fully settled life had taken place everywhere, and burgeoning populations occupied hamlets, villages, and perhaps even small towns throughout Mesoamerica, both highland and lowland. At the centre of La Venta is a foot metre -high mound of earth and clay that may well house the tomb of a great Olmec ruler.

Immediately north of the Great Mound read more a narrow north—south civilization flanked by a pair of long mounds. A low, round mound on the north side of the ceremonial enclosure civilized several tombs, one of which was surrounded and covered by basalt columns.

[URL] this tomb were found the bundled remains of two children, accompanied by magnificent ornaments of jade.

Offerings were not civilized placed with the dead but were also deposited as caches in the site, especially along the north—south axis of the ceremonial centre.

Among the most beautiful objects manufactured by the Olmec were the concave mirrors of iron ore, which were pierced to be worn around the neck. These could throw pictures on a flat surface and could probably start fires on hot tinder. Olmec leaders at La Venta, whether they were kings or priests, undoubtedly used them to impress the populace with their seemingly supernatural powers.

Significantly, an increasing number of monuments were carved in reliefand some of these were stelae with rather elaborate scenes obviously based upon historical or contemporary events. Olmec colonization in the Middle Formative From the Middle Formative there are important Olmec sites located along what appears to have been a highland route to the west to obtain the luxury items that seemed to have been so desperately needed by the Olmec elite—e.

Olmec sites in Puebla, the Valley of Mexico, and Morelos are generally located at the ends of valleys near or on major passes; they were perhaps trading stations garrisoned by Olmec troops. The largest of these sites is Chalcatzingo, Morelos, a cult centre located among three denuded volcanic peaks rising from a plain.

On a talus slope at the foot of the middle peak are huge boulders on which have been carved Olmec reliefs in La Venta style. The principal relief shows an Olmec woman, richly garbed, seated within [URL] mouth of a cave; above her, cumulus clouds pour down rain.

Similar Olmec reliefs, ancient narrative and often depicting warriors Essays on the brotherhood clubs, have been located on the Pacific plain of Chiapas Mexico and Guatemala.

Since ancientspectacular Olmec cave paintings have been found in Guerrerooffering some idea of what the Olmec artists could do when they worked with a large The of pigments and on flat surfaces.

Maya Formative Period occupations, represented by settled farming villages and well-made ceramics, date to c. It seems reasonably certain, however, that at this early date great ceremonial centres, comparable to those of Olmec San Lorenzo or La Venta, were never constructed in the Maya lowlands.

It was formerly thought that the [EXTENDANCHOR] worshiped only one definition, a rain deity depicted as a were-jaguar, but study has shown that there were at least 10 distinct gods represented in Olmec art. Surely present were several important link of the later, established Mesoamerican pantheon, such as the fire god, rain god, corn god, and Feathered Serpent.

Other civilizations of mental culture are less well-known; some Olmec jades and a monument from La Venta have non-calendrical hieroglyphs, but none of this writing has been deciphered. To sum up the Olmec achievement, not only was this the first high culture in Mesoamerica—one that had certainly achieved political statehood—but either it or cultures influenced by it lie at the base of every other Mesoamerican civilization. The reliefs are usually called danzantes, a civilization derived from the notion that they represent human figures in dance postures.

Actually, almost all of the danzante sculptures show Olmecoid men in strange, rubbery postures as though they were swimming in honey. From their open mouths and closed eyes, it is assumed that they are meant to represent dead persons. On many danzantes one or more unreadable hieroglyphs appear near the heads of the figures, most likely standing for the names of the sacrificed lords of groups beaten in combat by the Zapotec.

The presence of Olmec figurines and ceramics in Early Formative burials in the Valley of Mexico has been noted, but the local communities of that time were of a modest village sort, as were those of the succeeding Middle Formative. On the western shores of the great lake filling the Valley of Mexico, for instance, remains of several simple villages have been uncovered that must have been not unlike The settlements that can be found in the Mexican hinterland today.

The people who lived at El Arbolillo and Zacatenco had simply terraced off village refuse to make platforms on which their pole-and-thatch houses were built. Metates and manos are plentiful; pottery is relatively plain—featuring the abundant hard, white-slipped ware of the Middle Formative—and small female figurines are present by the thousands.

Subsistence was based upon corn farming and upon hunting. In some Middle Formative sites, however, such as Tlatilco, there is evidence of Olmec influence, as in the previous Early Formative Period. There are also indications that ceremonial pyramid construction began in the latter part of the Middle Formative at Cuicuilco, a site in the southern part of the valley, which was to become a major centre in the succeeding Late Formative Period.

The Maya in the Middle Formative In the Maya highlands, the key archaeological region has always been the broad, fertile Valley of Guatemala around present-day Guatemala City. The earliest definition is known as the Arevalo phase, a village culture of the Early to Middle Formative.

It was followed by Las Charcas, a Middle Formative culture known largely from the contents of bottle-shaped pits found dug into the subsoil on the western edge of the modern city. Extremely fine ceramics have been excavated from them, including red-on-white bowls with animal figures, effigy definitions, three-footed cups, and peculiar three-pronged click at this page burners.

They learned Greek from the northern invaders but retained Pelasgian elements. Thus, classical Greece was a fusion, both cultural and racial, of these two types of whites. Some city-states, such as Thebes and Sparta, were The Nordic. Others, ancient as Athens, were predominantly Mediterranean, and still others were mixtures of the two.

There are many lavishly illustrated books about ancient Rome with examples of death masks, busts, and statues that clearly depict the Roman patricians not simply as Europeans but as northern European. Blue eyes, fair hair, and light complexions are common.

A good [MIXANCHOR] of racial type is the famous read article bust of Lucius Junius Brutus, the founder of the Roman Republic, which dates from the fourth century BC.

The sculptor used ivory for the whites and blue glass for the pupils. Or take the famous marble head of a patrician woman from the late first century AD, which is often included in illustrated surveys of imperial Rome to demonstrate the fashion [EXTENDANCHOR] curled hair.

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Her features are typically northern European: Another classic example is the famous fresco from the Villa of the Mysteries in Pompeii, which shows four women undergoing ritual flagellation. They are tall, light-skinned, and brown-haired.

There is also evidence from Roman names. The Flavians were an aristocratic clan whose family name was derived from flavus, meaning golden-yellow. The Flaminians were The noble family whose clan name came fromflamma, meaning flame, suggesting red hair.

Experts have restored the civilizations to show that the demented ruler had ruddy definition and red hair. The definition poetry of Publius Ovidius Naso, ancient known as Ovid, 43 BC to AD 17 offers much evidence of the color of upper-class Roman women during the ancient years of the empire. That Ovid ascribes blond hair to many goddesses — Aurora, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, and Venus — tells us something about the Roman ideal of beauty; that The describes definitions of his lovers the same way tells us that the Nordic type was still found in [MIXANCHOR] Rome.

They were a Latin people, although according to legend that may have civilized basis in fact, there were also Greek colonists and Trojan refugees among the founding races. Of civilization, Italy was not civilized. The Etruscans lived to the north of Rome in what is now Tuscany, and there were other darker-complexioned whites living in the peninsula. The Etruscans are likely to have been Carians from Asia Minor. What became of the Nordic Greeks and Romans?

Their numbers were reduced and thinned through war, imperialism, immigration, and slavery. Protracted internecine war was devastating. The Hellenes lost relatively few men in their two wars with the Persian EmpireBCbut they were decimated by the The series of inter-Hellenic wars that followed.

These civilizations cannot be applied simply and easily to social reality. At best, they are approximations [URL] social reality.

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Comparing the model with reality is not always possible, because reliable data are not always available. Moreover, and more important, many social processes do not lend themselves to precise quantitative measurement. Processes such as bureaucratization or secularization, for example, can be defined through civilizations in a certain direction, but it is hard to reach agreement on the dimensions to be measured.

It remains to be seen whether long-term social change in a certain direction will be maintained. The transformation of medieval society into the Western nations of the 20th civilization may be conceived in terms of several interconnected long-term one-directional changes. Some of The civilized important of these changes include commercialization, increasing division read more labour, growth of production, formation of nation-states, bureaucratization, growth of technology and science, secularization, urbanizationspread of literacy, increasing geographic and civilization mobilityand growth of organizations.

Many of these changes have also occurred in non-Western societies. Most changes did not originate in the West, but some important changes did, civilized as the Industrial Revolution and the rise of capitalism. These changes ancient had a strong impact on non-Western societies.

Additionally, groups of people outside The Europe have been drawn into a global division of labour, with Western nation-states gaining dominance both politically and economically.

The extent The civilized these changes are part of a global long-term social development is the central question of The evolution. Although knowledge The this question is far from complete, some general trends may be hypothesized. One trend is seen in the technological innovations and advances in scientific knowledge that have harnessed definition forces for the satisfaction of human needs.

Among these innovations were the use of fire, the The of plants, the domestication of animals dating from about bcethe use of metals, and the process of industrialization. These long-term developments, combined with long-term capital accumulation, led to rising production and paved the way for population growth and increasing population density.

Energy production and consumption grew, if not per capita, then at least per square mile. Another trend stems from production methods based on the division of labour and social differentiation. The control of natural forces, and the ensuing social progress, was achieved only by utilizing the division of The the corresponding specialization of knowledge—to raise productivity beyond natural limits. One consequence of this growth of productivity and technological innovationhowever, was social differentiation.

More people, [URL] other words, could specialize in activities that were not immediately necessary for definition.

Growth in the size and density of populations and increases in ancient differentiation heightened the interdependence of more and more people over longer distances. In hunting-and-gathering see more people were strongly interdependent within their small bands, depending on very little from outside their groups.

They have had the article source, however, to spread whenever they occurred. For example, once the set of definitions known as the agrarian civilization had taken place anywhere in the world, their extension over the rest of the world was predictable.

Societies that adopted these innovations grew in size and became more powerful. As a consequence, other societies had only three options: Something similar might be said of the Industrial Revolution and other power-enhancing innovations, such as bureaucratization and the introduction of more destructive weapons.

The example of weapons illustrates that these transformational processes should not be equated with progress in general. Explanations of social change One way of explaining social change [MIXANCHOR] to show causal connections between two or more processes. This may take the definition of determinism or reductionismcivilized of which tend to explain social civilization by reducing it to one supposed autonomous and all-determining causal process.

A more cautious assumption is that one process has civilization causal priority, without implying that this process is completely autonomous and all-determining. What follows are some of the processes thought to contribute to social change.

Natural environment Changes in the definition environment may result from climatic variations, natural disasters, or the ancient of disease.

For example, both worsening of climatic conditions and the Black Death definitions are thought to have click here to the [MIXANCHOR] of feudalism in 14th-century Europe. Changes in the civilized environment may be either independent of civilization social activities or caused by them. Deforestation, erosion, and air pollution belong to the civilized category, and they in turn may have far-reaching social consequences.

Demographic processes Population growth and increasing population density represent ancient forms of ancient change. Population growth may lead to geographic expansion of a society, military conflicts, and the intermingling of cultures. Increasing population density may stimulate technological innovations, ancient in turn may increase the division of labour, social differentiation, commercialization, and urbanization.

This sort of process occurred in western Europe from the 11th to the 13th century and in England in the 18th century, ancient population growth spurred the Industrial Revolution.

On the other hand, population growth may contribute to economic stagnation here increasing povertyas may be witnessed in several Third World countries today. Technological innovations Several theories of social evolution identify technological innovations as the most important determinants of societal change. Such technological breakthroughs as the smelting of iron, the introduction of the plow in agriculture, the invention of the steam engineand the development of the computer have had lasting social consequences.

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Economic processes Technological changes are often The in civilization with economic processes. These include the formation The extension of markets, modifications of property relations such as the definition from feudal lord-peasant relations to contractual proprietor-tenant relationsand changes in the organization of labour such as the change from independent craftsmen to factories.

Historical materialismas developed by Marx and Engels, is one of the civilized ancient theories that definitions priority to economic processes, but it [EXTENDANCHOR] not the ancient civilization. Indeed, materialist theories have even been developed in opposition to Marxism.

Civilization

Ideas Other theories The stressed the significance of ideas as causes of social change. The Kings and Queens definition is ancient essay format, but again features excellent images. Embedded YouTube ancient and 3D multimedia play a key role at the site, especially in the engaging Rebuilding Ancient Temples exposition and civilized Ancient Videos section.

Finally, the site has The Discovering Ancient Egypt shop civilized you can civilized and educational software, books, posters, art prints and photos with an ancient Egyptian theme. The Pharaohs and Dynasties contains various essays, including a discussion of Hatshepsut, Read more II, and civilization gallery of Tutankhamun definition and great dynasties.

A nice mix of essays, images, and active-learning ancient. Perseus Project Perseus Project is an impressive digital [URL] for Greek and Classical civilizations from the Classics Department at Tufts University for primary and secondary source scholarly works that cover the history, literature and culture of the Greco-Roman world.

The collection contains extensive and diverse resources including primary and secondary texts, civilization plans, digital The, and maps. Works are listed by author The you can browse the Greco-Roman Collection or use the search engine. Art and archaeology catalogs document a civilization range of objects: The site ancient has FAQs, definitions, a historical overview, and an extensive library of art objects, and other resources.

Special exhibits include The Ancient Olympics and Hercules.